Current and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies for Toxoplasmosis: Conventional Treatments, Herbal Medicine, and Nanotechnology

Abstract

Toxoplasmosis is a widespread parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii that may lead to serious complications, particularly in pregnant women, congenitally infected infants, and immunocompromised patients. Current therapeutic options remain limited and are selected according to the clinical form of the disease and the host immune status. The standard first-line therapy is based mainly on pyrimethamine combined with sulfadiazine, which acts synergistically by inhibiting sequential steps in folate metabolism and consequently suppressing parasite proliferation. However, conventional anti-Toxoplasma regimens are frequently associated with adverse effects and toxicity, including bone marrow suppression, which may limit their clinical use. Alternative agents such as clindamycin, azithromycin, atovaquone, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and spiramycin have therefore been investigated for different clinical settings. More recently, herbal products and nanotechnology-based approaches, particularly metallic nanoparticles, have attracted attention because of their potential antiparasitic activity, improved drug delivery, and ability to reduce treatment-related toxicity. This mini-review summarizes conventional and emerging therapeutic strategies for toxoplasmosis, with consideration of treatment approaches in acquired, congenital, cerebral, ocular, and immunocompromised cases.